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Friday, May 30, 2008
The precise geographical origins ofMahayana are unknown. It is likely that various elements of Mahayana developed independently from the 1st century BCE onwards, initially within several small individual communities, in areas to the north-west within theKushan Empire (within present-day northernPakistan), and in areas within theShatavahana Empire, includingAmaravati to the south-east (in present-dayAndhra Pradesh), to the west around the port ofBharukaccha (present-dayBharuch, a town nearBombay), and around the various cave complexes, such asAjanta and Karli (in present-day Gujarat andMaharashtra). Some scholars have argued that Mahayana was a movement of lay Buddhists focused aroundstupa devotion. Pictures within the wall of a stupa representing the story of the Buddha and his previous reincarnation as abodhisattva were used to preach Buddhism to the masses. Other scholar reject this theory.[24] Monks representing different philosophical orientations could live in the same Sangha as long as they practiced the same Vinaya. Still, in terms of Abhidharma, the Sarvastivada school and theDharmaguptaka school, both of which were widespread in the Kushan Empire, seem to have had major influence.
Mahayana Buddhism generally regards as its most important teaching the path of the bodhisattva. This already existed as a possibility in earlier Buddhism, as it still does in Theravada today, but the Mahayana gave it an increasing emphasis, eventually saying everyone should follow it.
Expansion of Mahayana Buddhism between the 1st – 10th century CE.
Around the second century CE, the Kushan emperorKanishka is said to have convened what many western scholars call thefourth Buddhist council. This council is not recognised by the Theravada line of Buddhism. According to Mahayana sources, this council did not simply rely on the originalTripitaka. Instead, a set of new scriptures, mostly notably, thehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lotus_Sutra">Lotus Sutra, an early version of thehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heart_Sutra">Heart Sutra and theAmitabha Sutra were approved, as well as fundamental principles of doctrine based around the concept of salvation for all beings (hence Mahāyāna "great vehicle") and the concept of Buddhas and bodhisattvas who embody the indwelling yet transcendentBuddha-nature who strive to achieve such a goal. However, most western scholars believe this council was purely Sarvastivada, while the late Monseigneur Professor Lamotte considered it entirely fictitious.[25] The new scriptures were first written inBuddhist Hybrid Sanskrit or one of thePrakrits. From that point on, and in the space of a few centuries, Mahayana would spread from India toSoutheast Asia, and towards the north tohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_Asia">Central Asia and then east toChina where Mahayana wasSinicized and this Sinicized Mahayana would be passed on toKorea,Vietnam and finally to Japan in 538 CE. The East Asians would go on to write more indigenous sutras and commentaries to the Mahayana Canon.
One of the Buddhas of Bamyan, Afghanistan as it stood in 1963.
Mahāyāna Buddhism received significant theoretical grounding fromNāgārjuna (perhaps c.150–250 CE), arguably the most influential scholar within the Mahāyāna tradition. Some of the writings attributed to him made explicit references to Mahāyāna texts, but his philosophy was argued within the parameters set out by theTripiṭaka sūtras. Nāgārjuna asserted that the nature of the dharmas (hence the enlightenment) to beśūnya (void or empty), bringing together other key Buddhist doctrines, particularly anātman (no-self) andpratītyasamutpāda (dependent origination). His school of thought is known as the Madhyamaka.
After the end of theKuṣāṇas, Buddhism flourished in India during the dynasty of theGuptas (4th – 6th century). Mahāyāna centres of learning were established, the most important one being theNālandā University in north-eastern India. Sarvāstivāda teaching, which was criticized by Nāgārjuna, was reformulated by scholars such asVasubandhu and Asaṅga and were adapted into theYogācāra (Sanskrit: yoga practice) school. While the Madhyamaka school asserted that there is no ultimately real thing, the Yogācāra school asserts that only the mind is ultimately existent. These two schools of thought, in opposition or synthesis, form the basis of subsequent Mahāyāna theology in the Indo-Tibetan tradition
Canada Forum for Nepal, also known as CFFN or CFFN.ca, is a not–for–profit organization registered with the Government of Canada. According to its official website, CFFN is an organization of Nepalese Diaspora and Friends of Nepal aspiring to see a peaceful, democratic, just, and prosperous Nepal. Established in January 2006 at Ottawa, Canada, it was a culmination of efforts by those individuals who were weighing on various alternatives to help the people of Nepal.
The CFFN states to have simple objectives: raising awareness about Nepal in Canada; incubating research in Canada on solutions to Nepal’s economic, social, and political issues; promoting cooperation between the grassroots people of Canada and Nepal for promoting collaborative development and international peace.
Since its inception CFFN has made significant amount of contribution towards the movement for peace, justice, and democracy in Nepal. In January 2006, CFFN initiated organized activities in support of the democratic movement of Nepal. Since then, some of the accomplishments of the organization are: submission of human rights complaints in the UN; petition campaign for peace and democracy and its submission to the UN and the Government of Canada; panel discussions with Nepal experts and Hon Flora MacDonald – former Minister of Foreign Affairs of Canada. Besides, CFFN also raised fund for the victims during the popular uprising of 2006, provided radio interviews, organized a number of interaction programs and deliberated in conferences on contemporary issues of Nepal, and also brought academic thoughts on issues of Nepal through its newsletters – Concern Nepal – and other publications.
After the Janaandolan II of April 2006, the organization shifted its focus more on research, knowledge, education of children, and raising awareness about Nepal in Canada. It organized “Himalayan Heartbeat” with renowned mountaineer Andrew Brash as a keynote speaker in 2006. And it organized the second annual Himalayan Heartbeat program with one of the most prominent living personalities in Nepal, Hon. Marion Dewar, the former Mayor of Ottawa, as the chief guest.
CFFN is organized a series of interaction programs throughout 2006 and 2007. The first prominent program was held in February 2006 with a panel of Nepal experts and Hon. Flora MacDOnald, the former Foreign Minister of Canada. The latest and largest conference organized by CFFN was academic conference titled “Unfolding Futures: Nepalese Economy, Society and Politics” on 5-7 October, 2007 in Ottawa, Canada. This conference was addressed by Dr. Ronald Watts, a foremost authority in the world in the knowledge of federalism and the former Vice-Chancellor of Queens University of Canada.
The CFFN promotes critical thinking and scholarly exchanges between Canada and Nepal. In particular, the organization likes to position itself as a bridge between the Canadian public who are concerned about global issues and the most disadvantaged children, women and men of Nepal who are deprived of basic education, knowledge, and capacity required for overcoming poverty and for inculcating innovation and progress. This stance comes from a conviction that knowledge and education is the most profound requirement for building a just and prosperous Nepal.
CFFN provides individuals of all ages, talents and abilities the opportunities to contribute in worthy endeavors that benefit both Nepal and Canada. Its programs stem from an awareness towards the needs of individuals, families, nations, and the world as a whole.
The Nepalese caste system, like the Indian caste system, is highly complex and continues the traditional system of social stratification of Nepal. The caste system defines social classes by a number of hierarchical endogamous groups often termed as Jāt. This custom is found in both the Hindu and Buddhist communities of Nepal. However, in Nepal people sometimes erroneously use word Caste to mean their race or ethnicity. The ethnic groups (physically Mongoloid, e.g.Rai, Magar) are a different race from Hill Indo-Aryans (Khas), who are themselves distinct from Plains Indo-Aryans (Madhesis). The Caste system has traditionally existed in the latter two races i.e.Khas and Madhesis. Junga Bahadur (see below), however, included Indigenous ethnic groups in his Muluki Ain as Matwalis (alcohol drinker).
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History of the Caste System in Nepal
The regal code of Muluki Ain (1854) was written by Jang Bahadur Rana after his return from his European tour. The Muluki Ain (1854) was a written version of social code that had been in practice for several centuries in Nepal.
Promotion is followed by demotion. The civil code (1853/54) legalized Nepalese community into two castes `the caste whose water is allowed to remain pure' and `the caste whose water is defiled'. The second caste needed sprinkling of water at some places, while it did not require it at other places.
During the Rana regime the chiefs of the three castes were entrusted with sorting out issues related to their own castes. The heads of Kamis (Iron-smiths) and Sarkis (Cobblers) were called 'Mijhars'. Similarly the head of "Damai" (tailor) was called "Nagarchi" while other castes of the first category had their own heads. This system was developed with the purpose that the community members might not have to go to offices or courts to settle trivial legal matters. Mijhars and Nagarchis, however, added to the injustice and exploitation meted out to their respective communities. They were obviously influenced by their masters' nature. Like their masters, they never hesitated to do injustice against their communities. No appeal was heard against them.
From the medieval period onward, people demoted in their castes had their dwindling social status owing to caste system and their defeat. As a result, there ensued perversions in their eating, living and movement. They began to deteriorate in their manners, sanitation and self-respect. The people who considered themselves superior in caste exploited it as a cause of oppressing them. Thus, inhuman and anti-social ban was imposed on entering temples, receiving education, listening to high-caste people's teachings, worshipping, planting Bar or Pipal trees, digging ponds or making any other things to perpetuate prestige, rejoicing fares and festivals like others and other social practices. Generally speaking, these practices were found to be more stringent than these of social outcastes. As a result, low-caste people had to face brutal tortures. For instance, they had to lead the life of untouchables. They could not look at high-born women lest they would be expelled from the country. If they ran into persons of higher caste they would have to go down the way. They had to pay obeisance (JADAU) whosoever they might be. They would be put to death if they went against their oppression. If someone from higher caste married a woman from lower caste, he was not eligible for `jarikhat'. It was necessary to request for sprinkling water if they touched thread-wearing or non-thread-wearing persons. Two way conversation with upper castes was banned for them. These discriminatory provisions of the civil code were based on Hindu scriptures like Parskar Grihyasutra, Gautam Sutra, Manusmriti, and Shukra Niti. When these people were neglected in this way, there did not arise any question of their participation in economic, social, cultural and administrative spheres. Hence, they were forced to survive on low-paid manual works like playing indigenous musical instruments, sawing wood, doing leather works, practising music, art and dance, cutting stone, breaking boulders, pottery, earning wages as labourers, cleaning latrine, washing, and skinning dead animals. These helpless people were thus inflicted with tortures till 1950. They were treated not as human beings and their outcry went unheard.
The present caste system is also said to consist of four classes and thirty-six castes; however, it is just a rough estimate usually made in the mountains and hills. The Newari community and the Terai community are composed of more than thirty-six castes.
During the Panchayat regime Nepal was referred to as a 'Hindu State' as well. The Constitution of the Kingdom of Nepal (1990) has also retained it. In Nepal, the only Hindu state in the world, thousands of people treated as untouchables have been undergoing bitter experience legally for centuries. History is replete with evidence that because of the legal system based on the Hindu religion lower-caste victims were given more inhuman and stringent penalty than higher-caste ones in similar crimes during Lichhvi, Malla, Shaha and Rana periods (except during kirant period). For instance, there was a legal provision during Malla period to cut Shudra's penis, force him to eat it and get him butchered by chandals ('murderers') on charge of having sexual intercourse with a Brahmin woman. Similarly, during Rajendra Shaha's regime, there existed a law decreed on (1893 ASHADH SUDI 7 ROSE 4 BS), according to which "if a person from Shudra caste like Damai, Sunar(Kami), Sarki, Balami, Majhi, Danuwar, Murmi, Bhote, Chepang, and Kumal had sexual intercourse with his brother's wife deliberately, he must be put to death." Prior to the implementation of the new civil code of 1963/64, this legal provision continued. Moreover, according to it, higher caste individuals were given lesser penalty if they were charged with having sexual intercourse with lower caste women, but if lower-caste persons had sexual intercourse with higher caste women, they were sentenced to fourteen - year imprisonment. The civil code of 1963/64 has, no doubt, tried to establish legal equality between so-called high-caste and low-caste people in principle (according to recent amendment in the civil code) and untouchability is now liable to penalty. However, this community has not yet enjoyed equal accessibility to law. These unequal and inhuman practices will be discussed in detail later.
Caste Divisions
Caste categories diverged from the four varnas of the classical Vedic model and instead had three categories to accommodate the tribal peoples between the pure and impure castes. These were further classified into five hierarchies with the following order precedence. (Harka Gurung 2005:3,Occasional Papers in Sociology and Anthropology)
- Thagadhari, (Wearer of holy chord)
- Matwali
- Namasyane Matwali (Non-enslavable alcohol-drinkers)
- Masyane Matwali (Enslavable alcohol drinkers)
- Pani nachalne choichoto halnu naparne, (Impure but touchable castes)
- Pani nachalne chiochoti halnu parne, (Impure and Untouchable castes)
The above mentioned categories imply that Thagadhari (Wearer of holy chord) remains in the highest hierarchy in the Nepali caste system followed by Matwali, (Non-enslavable alcohol-drinkers) and enslavable alcohol drinkers, touchable caste and lastly untouchable.
Legitimacy of the Caste System
Muluki Ain imposes the caste system in Nepal in order to incorporate people of different origin and bring them under one umbrella of the caste system. The first categories of Thagadhari, which include Parbate Brahmin and Chhetri, are in the higher categories of hierarchy whereas Brahmins of Terai and Newari Brahmin as per Muluki Ain do not fall under these categories.
Matwali group, enslavable and non-enslavable falls under second categories, which include the people of ethnic origin and Brahmins of Terai and Newari Brahmins. It also includes those people in the non-enslavable group such as Magar, Gurung, Rai, and Limbu etc and enslavable are Tamang, Chepang, Thami etc.
Untouchable are the categories of varnas system in ancient Manu's Code but some people such as Muslims and foreigners as well fall into these categories. Untouchables are divided into Pani nachalne choichoto halnu naparne, (Impure but touchable castes) and Pani nachalne chiochoti halnu parne, (Impure and Untouchable castes).
The creation of sub-castes in Nepal is unique. For instance, the child born of a high-caste father and a low-caste mother was a case of promotion. There were unwritten practices like not defiling and sprinkling water which still exists. Children born from wandering sanyasi fathers and intercaste marital relation also belong to the same category.
The Untouchables
- The communities engaged in making ornaments, weapons, pottery and other labor skills.
Those who consider themselves superior among the castes/tribes whose water is defiled are called by different names: Kamis (Iron-smiths), Sunars (Gold-smiths), Lohars (Iron smiths), Vishwakarmas (V.K.), Sobh, Snehi Nepali, etc. They have been named after the professions they are found to be engaged in. For instance, one who is engaged in works related to gold is a Sonar; one who constructs a house or makes pots is an Od; the person who makes things out of copper is a Tamta; on who is engaged in iron-related works is a Lohar, one who is engaged in making utensils from wood is a Chunara; one who constructs good from bamboo is called a Parki; cloth weaver a Koli and Bhool for the person engaged in leather work.
During the Rana regime the person deputed to deal with the issues related to this community was referred to as 'Mijhar'. Some people are found to take this title as their surname or subcaste. In the western part, goldsmiths are called 'Mijhar'. This community has been found to be distributed all over Nepal. It has the following subcategories:
Agri, Acharya, Aafladhoti, Wokheda, Wod/Wor, Kadara (Kandara), Karada, Kasara, Kallohar, Kalikote, Kaliraj (Shahoo), Kumaki, Kaini, Koirala, Koli, Khadkathoki, Khapangi, Khati, Gajmer, Gajurel, Gadal, Gadaili, Gahate (Gahatraj), Giri, Gotame, Gowa, Ghatani, Ghamal, Gharti Ghimire, Ghamghotle, Ghimire (Sijapati and Ghimire also called "Shobh"), Ghotane, Chandara/Chandaro, Chilime, Tiwari, Chunara, Chhistal, Jandkami, Tamata (Tamrakar), Thagunna, Thatera, Tiruwa, Dayal/Diyali, Dalami, Darnal, Dudraj (Dudhraj), Dural, Deupate, Dewal, Dhamala, Dhanik (Dhanuk), Nagarkoti (Kabhre and Sindhupanchowk's Rasailis are using nowadays), Niraula, Nepal, Panthi, Palla (Ya), Parajuli, Pahari, Padhyawati, Pagri, Parki, Pulami, Pokharel, Portel, Paudel, Baraili/Barali/Baral, Bunchebhale, Banskota, Bipali, Bhatta, Bhattarai, Bhusal, Bhool, Mahilipar, Mar (Mahar), Mijhar, Rasaili, Rahpal, Rajilohar, Ramdam/Ramdamoo, Rijal, Risal (Raisalis are using), Ruchal, Raikal, Lakandri, Latopi, Labad, Lamgade (It has three sub-category - Lamakarmi, Lamichhane and Poudeli, Lohar, Lwagun/Luhagun, Shahsankar, Shahoo, Sherala, Sadasankar/Sattasankar, Sapkota, Sani, Sundhuwa, Sunchyuri/Sunchiuri, Singaure, Sijapati, Sirpali (Shripali), Suni, Setipar, Seti Mahara, Setisural, Sonam, Himchyuri etc.
- The community Engaged in Sewing Cloth and Playing Local Musical Instruments
The persons engaged in sewing cloth are called 'suchikar' or 'Sujikar'. Those who play musical instruments like 'damau' (damaha), drum, hudko, and devbaja are referred to as damai (damahi), dholi, hudke, and nagarchi, Nagdi are regarded as lazy and useless respectively. It was natural to call them by these names in accordance with the types of musical instruments they used to play. The persons employed in sewing are now called darji, tailor, master, or tailor-master. The term darji was restricted to Muslim sewers. Recently, however, it is used for all who are engaged in sewing cloth as well as playing musical instruments. Similarly, damahi has also undergone extension of its meaning. Initially it referred only to those who played a particular type of musical instrument, called 'damaha' but it is now used for the entire caste. It should, in fact, not to be used for the entire or separate caste. Subcastes tally mostly with Aryan castes. Pariyar, Nepali, Darji and other similar surnames have come in vogue recently. In western Nepal, Damai came to be used only lately. As damai is called derogatorily in the east, so is dholi in the west. This community is distributed all over Nepal. It has the following subcategories:
Asasai, Aauji, Kandel, Katuwal, Karkidholi (Khulal, Mudula, Lama, Sutar), Kalakhati, Koirala, Khatiwada, Guinde, Gautam (Gotame), Ghatani, Ghale, Chahar, Chuhan, Chhinal, Jairu, Thagunna, Thatal, Daunde, Dholi (also used by those who forgot their sub-caste), Dhyaki, Tiwari/Tikhatri, Thapa, Darnal, Damai Pariyar, Damai Parel, Das, Deukar, Dewal, Nagwag, Nagwan, Nagarchi, Negi, Nepal, Naubag, Pariyar (Achhame, Chudal), Panchkoti/Panchakoti, Bahak, Pokharel, Bardewa, Bagchan, Bagdas, Budhapothi, Boodhaprithi, Baiju, Bhandari, Bhitrikoti, Bhusal, Magar, Mahate, Mahara, Male, Ranpal, Ranpahenli, Ratna/Ratne, Ratnapariyar, Rana, Raigain, Raika, Ryainjhyain, Lamghate, Luintel, Shinal, Shilal, Shiwa/Siwa (Kukhure, Gotame, Bhede), Samudrasai, Sunal, Sunam, Sunam, Sunchyuri/Sunchiuri, Sudas, Sasmundra, Shahassamudra, Sooji, Hingmang, Hudke etc.
- The Community in Leather Profession
This community is known as Sarki, Charmkar and Mijhar in Nepal. Less populated in the eastern part of Nepal, it is mainly distributed in the Kathmandu valley and the remote western region. There are two levels of Sarkis in western Nepal - with caste and without caste, which is called Bhool. This community treats itself equal to Kami (Vishwakarma) in social rank. It has the following subcategories:
Achchhami/Achhami, Uparkoti, Upreti, Kamar, Koirala, Khatiwada, Giri, Gaire, Gairepipan, Gothe, Ghimire, Chamar, Chudal, Chuhan, Chhatkuli, Thagunna, Chhamarki, Thakursya, Thararai, Dale, Tolangi, Thapaliya, Thak, Daulakoti/Dyaulakoti, Dabe, Dahal, Dulal, Dhamel, Naghali, Pahenli (Panyeli), Purkoti, Batsyal/Basel, Bamrel, Bayalkoti, Bastakoti, Bisunkhe, Bogati, Bhangyal, Bhul/Bheyanl, Bhurtel, Mangrati/Magarati (Aaththane, Kala, Khilinge, Doodh, Dhur, Barhathane), Majboti, Malbule, Malbok, Mudel, Ramtel, Ruchal, Roila, Rokka, Lamjel, Lamsal, Shahi, Shrimati/Sirimal, Sarmaute, Siraute, Surkheni, Suyenl, Sejwal, Hitang etc.
- The community of Singing Gypsies
There is a community of people who wander about all parts of Nepal singing songs of historical bravery and gallantry. Known as Gaine or Gandharwa, these people are also looked upon as untouchables. They also call themselves by the surname 'Nepali'. Though they keep on wandering about different places like Gypsies, they are found to be mainly settled down in some districts of the Western and mid-western regions, namely, Jumla, Kaski (Batulechaur), Syangja, Gorkha, Tanhun, Palpa, Gulmi, Bhairhawa, Surkhet, Dailekh, Jajarkot, Rukum, Pyuthan, Dang and Salyan. They are also found in the Kathmandu valley and Bhojpur in the eastern region. Only a limited number of their surnames sound original. Most of them are like those of Brahmins, Kshetris, and Kamis, while a few of them have been named after particular places. These surnames are as follows:
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